--> Effective Petroleum Source Rocks of the World: Stratigraphic Distribution and Controlling Depositional Factors; H. D. Klemme and G. F. Ulmishek; Search and Discovery Article #30003 (1999)
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Effective Petroleum Previous HitSourceNext Hit Previous HitRocksNext Hit of the World: Stratigraphic Distribution and Controlling Depositional Factors

H.D. Klemme and G.F. Ulmishek

Search and Discovery Article #30003 (1999)

(Condensed from their article published in the AAPG Bulletin, v. 75, 1991, p. 1809-1851; reprinted in part and adapted for online presentation.

More than 90% of original recoverable oil and gas reserves in the world has been generated from Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit of six stratigraphic intervals--(1) Silurian (generated 9% of the world's reserves), (2) Upper Devonian-Tournaisian (8% of reserves), (3) Pennsylvanian-Lower Permian (8% of reserves), (4) Upper Jurassic (25% of reserves), (5) Previous HitmiddleNext Hit Cretaceous (29% of reserves), and (6) Oligocene-Miocene (12.5% of reserves) (Fig. 1). Facies and structural form maps (Animation, or Time-Lapse Sequence, A) for the six intervals are shown in quasi-animation form, as are corresponding petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock maps (Animation, or Time-Lapse Sequence, B). Together, these intervals represent only one-third of Phanerozoic time. The concentration of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit in these several stratigraphic intervals demonstrates uneven distribution of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit in time, and obviously it does not result from a single mechanism because the areal distribution, localization in specific structural forms, and even the geochemical character of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit changed from one interval to another. Key features of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit of these intervals in Previous HitbasinsNext Hit of Previous HitdevelopmentNext Hit are summarized in Tables 1-6. The primary factors that controlled the areal distribution of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit, their geochemical type, and their effectiveness are geologic age, paleolatitude of the depositional areas, structural forms in which the deposition of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit occurred, and the evolution of biota. Silurian, Upper Devonian-Tournaisian, Upper Jurassic, and Previous HitmiddleNext Hit Cretaceous Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit were deposited during generally transgressive stages. In contrast, the deposition of Pennsylvanian-Lower Permian and Oligocene-Miocene Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit took place during marine regressions. Favorable combinations of a number of factors--tectonic, climatic, hydrologic, and biologic--resulted in high effectiveness of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit of the six principal intervals. Thus, the intermittent appearance of widespread effective Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit was not caused by any cyclic geologic process.

The most important change in the character of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit during the Phanerozoic was the appearance and expansion of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit containing type III kerogen and coal. The effectiveness of these Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit also grew, reaching its maximum in the Oligocene-Miocene. However, the areal extent and effectiveness of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit with type II kerogen, primarily black shale facies, decreased during the same time. Low latitudes were more favorable for deposition of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit with kerogen types I and II. In contrast, more Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit containing kerogen type III and coal were deposited in high latitudes (except for the Oligocene-Miocene interval). A very high effectiveness of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit with kerogen types I and II deposited in low latitudes is connected with the widespread presence of carbonate reservoir Previous HitrocksNext Hit and evaporite seals that helped trap and retain petroleum.

Platforms open to the oceans controlled the deposition of effective Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit during the early and Previous HitmiddleNext Hit Paleozoic. In the Previous HitMesozoicNext Hit, the main Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock deposition shifted to the silled Previous HitbasinsNext Hit located in circular and linear sags. In the Pennsylvanian-Early Permian, rifts and foredeeps controlled the principal deposition of petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit. In the Oligocene-Miocene, the Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock deposition occurred in these same two structural forms and also in deltas and half sags.

We suggest that biologic evolution played an important role in the history of Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock deposition. Different groups of producers evolved and colonized new ecologic niches that expanded areas of bioproduction. Previous HitSourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit with terrestrial organic matter appeared. However, the contemporaneous evolution of consumers and decomposers resulted in the decrease of variety of conditions suitable for preservation of organic matter with type II kerogen. The areal expansion of organic matter production and the simultaneous attenuation of conditions of its preservation in the ocean resulted in a change from Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit with exclusively marine organic matter in the early Paleozoic to Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit with dominant terrestrial organic matter in the Tertiary.

The maturation rate of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit, similar to their rate of deposition, was also quite uneven in geologic time. The major stage of maturation of Paleozoic Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit was associated with the Hercynian orogeny and widespread deposition of thick molasses. The next principal maturation stage occurred during the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary in connection with the Alpine orogeny and deposition of thick clastic wedges of this age.

Figure 2 summarizes deposition of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit, their maturation, and entrapment. As would be expected, the line of effective Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit deposition is mostly located above the line of trapped petroleum reflecting the dominance of upward-directed vertical migration; however, the relative position of these lines is reversed at the base of the Upper Jurassic. This means that all effective Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit deposited before the Late Jurassic could not have provided all of the oil and gas trapped in the sub-Upper Jurassic section. This relationship emphasizes the importance of the downward migration of petroleum.

The cumulative maturation line demonstrates the generally young age of most of the world's discovered oil and gas. Almost 70% of the world's oil and gas reserves was generated since the Coniacian, and nearly 50% of the reserves was generated and trapped since the Oligocene. About 6% of the world's petroleum reserves is biogenic gas from still-immature Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit; the bulk of this gas occurs in northern West Siberia.

The high effectiveness of Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit with type II kerogen that were deposited in low latitudes resulted in rich oil and gas reserves of the Tethyan realm, a Silurian-Holocene latitudinal seaway between Gondwana and the northern group of continents (Fig.3). On the north, the realm is bounded by the Hercynian collision zone and includes foreland Previous HitbasinsNext Hit genetically connected with Tethyan tectonics. In addition to clastic Previous HitrocksNext Hit, the realm contains widespread carbonate Previous HitreservoirsNext Hit and evaporite seals. The Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock deposition was aided by the successive opening and collisional closing of proto-Tethys, paleo-Tethys, and neo-Tethys that developed rift/sag structural forms favorable for the formation of silled Previous HitbasinsNext Hit. The Tethyan Previous HitbasinsNext Hit are developed over less than one-fifth of the world's land area and continental shelves, yet they contain over two-thirds of the original petroleum reserves.

The Boreal realm is second in richness. Its petroleum reserves are in Paleozoic carbonate and clastic Previous HitreservoirsNext Hit and in Previous HitMesozoicNext Hit clastic Previous HitreservoirsNext Hit. Paleozoic petroleum primarily is connected with Upper Devonian-Tournaisian Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit deposited on platforms in low paleolatitudes. Most Previous HitMesozoicNext Hit petroleum was generated from Upper Jurassic and Previous HitmiddleNext Hit Cretaceous Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit deposited in sags over rifts.

The Pacific and south Gondwana realms are relatively poor in oil and gas. The principal petroleum reserves of the Pacific realm are in Tertiary rifts and deltas of the active margin and in foredeep Previous HitbasinsNext Hit connected with orogenies of the eastern Pacific rim. In the south Gondwana realm, major petroleum reserves are confined to Previous HitMesozoicNext Hit-early Tertiary rifted passive margin Previous HitbasinsNext Hit and to late Tertiary deltas. Much of the petroleum in both realms is high-wax oils resulting from either type I or type III kerogen.

Figure 1 - Stratigraphic distribution of effective Previous HitsourceNext Hit Previous HitrocksNext Hit given as a percentage of the world's original petroleum reserves generated by these Previous HitrocksNext Hit. (Fig. 1 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Figure 2 - Cumulative chart of effective Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock deposition, Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock maturation, and petroleum trapped in the stratigraphic succession given as a percentage of world's original petroleum reserves. (Fig. 28 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Figure 3 - Petroleum realms of the world. (Fig. 29 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

 

Animation, or Time-Lapse Sequence, A

Silurian lithofacies and structural forms map. (Fig. 4 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Upper Devonian-Tournaisian lithofacies and structural forms map. (Fig. 6 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).		 Pennsylvanian-Lower Permian lithofacies and structural forms map. (Fig. 8 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Upper Jurassic lithofacies and structural forms map. (Fig. 10 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).		 Previous HitMiddleNext Hit Cretaceous lithofacies and structural forms map. (Fig. 12 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Oligocene-Miocene lithofacies and structural forms map. (Fig. 14 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

 

Animation, or Time-Lapse Sequence, B

Silurian petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock map. (Fig. 5 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Upper Devonian-Tournaisian petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock map. (Fig. 7 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Previous HitMiddleNext Hit Cretaceous petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock map (Fig. 13 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

 Pennsylvanian-Lower Permian petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock map. (Fig. 9 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Upper Jurassic petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock map. (Fig. 11 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

Oligocene-Miocene petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit rock map. (Fig. 15 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

 Explanation for lithofacies and structural form maps.(for Animation, or Time-Lapse Sequence, A and explanation of petroleum Previous HitsourceNext Hit maps, Animation, or Time-Lapse Sequence, B.)(Fig. 3 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991).

 

Tables

Major Productive Previous HitBasinsNext Hit Having Silurian Previous HitSourceNext Hit Previous HitRocksNext Hit (part of Table 1 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; please refer to it for citations).

Major Productive Previous HitBasinsNext Hit Having Upper Devonian-Tournaisian Previous HitSourceNext Hit Previous HitRocksNext Hit (part of Table 1 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; please refer to it for citations).

Major Productive Previous HitBasinsNext Hit Having Pennsylvanian-Lower Permian Previous HitSourceNext Hit Previous HitRocksNext Hit (part of Table 1 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; please refer to it for citations).

Major Productive Previous HitBasinsNext Hit Having Upper Jurassic Previous HitSourceNext Hit Previous HitRocksNext Hit (part of Table 1 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; please refer to it for citations).

Major Productive Previous HitBasinsNext Hit Having Previous HitMiddleNext Hit Cretaceous Previous HitSourceNext Hit Previous HitRocksNext Hit (part of Table 1 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; please refer to it for citations).

Major Productive Previous HitBasinsNext Hit Having Oligocene-Miocene Previous HitSourceNext Hit Previous HitRocksNext Hit (part of Table 1 in Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991; please refer to it for citations).

 

 

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