uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References




















 

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

uAbstract
uFigures
uIntroduction
uMethods
uResults
uDiscussion and Conclusions
uAcknowledgements
uSelected References

Introduction

The Bonnet Plume Basin is one of eight oil and gas basins identified in the Yukon (Figure 1). This basin has long been recognized for the occurrence of thick lignite coal seams (i.e., up to 17 m, Cameron and Beaton, 2000), including one that is naturally burning (de Sainville, 1898). In addition, Paleozoic strata are thought to be petroliferous, with ‘tar’ described as oozing from outcrops in several places (Camsell, 1906). Extensive coal exploration, including detailed geologic mapping, trenching and drilling, was undertaken in the late 1970’s to early 1980’s, resulting in the discovery of the largest coal resource in the Yukon: an estimated 2800 megatonnes (Cameron and Beaton, 2000). Link et al. (1989) reported total organic carbon values up to 9.6% (i.e., an excellent petroleum source rock) and Type I kerogen (i.e., oil-prone) and Type II kerogen (i.e., oil- and gas-prone) in Paleozoic strata from wells north of the basin. However, based on regional geology, sediment type and stratigraphic thickness, Hannigan (2000) concluded that the Bonnet Plume Basin has gas potential, but insignificant oil potential. Specifically, lower Paleozoic clastic and carbonate strata are thought to be potential source rocks, as are Cretaceous clastic strata (Hannigan, 2000). The median estimate for the total gas potential in the Bonnet Plume Basin is 896 Bcf of in-place gas, and the extensive coal deposits indicate that it has significant coalbed methane potential (Hannigan, 2000). Nevertheless, Hannigan’s (2000) report is not based on samples collected from within the basin. The present study reports the results Rock-Eval 6 analyses of outcrop and drill core samples collected throughout the Bonnet Plume Basin in order to assess the petroleum source rock potential of the strata.

Methods

Two-hundred-twenty-eight rock samples were collected from outcrop and drill core throughout the Bonnet Plume Basin. Source rock quantity, quality and thermal maturation level was determined by Rock-Eval 6 programmed pyrolysis and combustion using standard techniques by the Geological Survey of Canada in Calgary, Alberta. Technical details of the Rock-Eval apparatus, procedures and applications are available in Espitalie et al. (1985), Peters (1986), Peters and Casa (1994), Tyson (1995), Lafargue et al. (1998), Behar et al. (2001), and Fowler et al (2005), whereas a less technical summary is provided by Lowey and Long (2006).

Results

Selected Rock-Eval results, including hydrocarbons generated by pyrolitic degredation of kerogen and total organic carbon (i.e., S2 vs. TOC plots), and the hydrogen index and temperature of the maximum amount of hydrocarbons generated during pyrolitic degradation (i.e., HI vs. T_max plots) are summarized in Figure 2.

Discussion and Conclusions

The Paleozoic strata contains small to moderate amounts of TOC, negligible to small amounts of S1 and small amounts of S2, indicating that overall, it is a poor source rock. HI values and the S2/S3 ratio suggest that only gas would be present. The T_max values are probably unreliable due to the low S2 values, and so the thermal maturity of the strata within the basin is uncertain. However, based on vitrinite reflectance and the conodont alteration index, Link and Bustin (1989) determined that Paleozoic strata north of the Bonnet Plume Basin is postmature and that thermal maturity increases southwards. In addition, Link et al. (1989) concluded that the Paleozoic strata currently has poor source rock potential, but probably generated oil in Devonian to Carboniferous time.

The lower Bonnet Plume Formation contains small to large amounts of TOC (note that coal defined as greater than 50 % by weight carbonaceous material), small to moderate amounts of S1 and small to large amounts of S2, indicating that overall, it is an excellent source rock. HI values, the S2/S3 ratio and the S2 vs. TOC and the HI vs. T_max plots suggest that gas and possibly oil are present. The presence of Type II kerogen (i.e., organic matter of marine origin that is oil- and gas-prone) is supported by the occurrence of dinoflagellate cysts (Nichols and Sweet, 1993), which indicate the lower Bonnet Plume Formation is in part marginal marine in origin. The T_max values indicate the rock is mainly thermally immature to early mature with respect to oil generation. According to Cameron and Beaton (2000), vitrinite reflectance values for the lower Bonnet Plume range from 0.55-0.65, whereas D.G.F. Long (written communication, January 22, 2002) states that the average vitrinite reflectance value is 0.47. In general, the vitrinite reflectance values agree with the maturation level determined by Rock-Eval analysis. Also, coal rank in the lower Bonnet Plume Formation is sub-bituminous A to high volatile C bituminous (Long, 1986; Cameron and Beaton, 2000), corresponding to the beginning half of the oil window (Fowler et al., 2005). Economic accumulations of petroleum are thought to occur if coal rank is less than or equal to high-volatile bituminous (Stack et al., 1982). In addition, oil generation is marginally supported by the composition of the coal, which contains up to 9.7 % liptinite (D.G.F. Long, written communication, January 22, 2002). According to Peters and Cassa (1994), 15-20 % liptinite is required for coal to generate oil.

The upper Bonnet Plume Formation contains small to large amounts of TOC, negligible to large amounts of S1 and negligible to large amounts of S2, indicating that overall, it is an excellent source rock. HI values, the S2/S3 ratio and the S2 vs. TOC and the HI vs. T_max plots suggest that gas and possibly oil are present. The T_max values indicate the rock is mainly thermally immature to early mature with respect to oil generation. According to D.G.F. Long (written communication, January 22, 2002), the average vitrinite reflectance values for the upper Bonnet Plume is 0.31, in general agreement with the maturation level determined by Rock-Eval analysis. Also, coal rank in the upper Bonnet Plume Formation is lignite (Cameron and Beaton, 2000), corresponding to pre-oil window conditions (Fowler et al., 2005). However, oil generation is supported by the composition of the lignite, which contains up to 19% liptinite (D.G.F. Long, written communication, January 22, 2002), and the previously unrecognized tar.

Potential oil generation in the Bonnet Plume Formation is attributed to the occurrence of liptinite-bearing coal and previously unrecognized oil shale. Numerous studies have shown that coal provides the source for commercial oil accumulations in numerous sedimentary basins (Hendrix et al., 1995, and references therein). Oil-prone coal is not only characterized by high HI and S2 values, but also high S1 values: i.e., it is thermally mature with respect to oil generation (Tissot and Welte, 1984). For example, sample W1-79 from the upper Bonnet Plume Formation displays characteristics similar to oil-prone coal with HI=203, S2=104.68 mg HC/g rock and S1=6.35 mg HC/g rock. Note that Peters (1986) cautions that Rock-Eval analysis tends to overestimate the liquid-hydrocarbon generative potential of coal. Several rock samples from the Bonnet Plume Formation are also similar to 'siliceous' oil shale (i.e., clay minerals are predominant), rather than carbonate-rich oil shale (Duncan, 1976; Yen and Chilingar, 1976). Oil shale is characterized by high TOC and S2 values, but low S1 values: i.e., it is thermally immature with respect to oil generation (Hunt, 1996). For example, sample BP 79/17-201.2 from the lower Bonnet Plume Formation displays characteristics similar to oil shale with TOC=16.99 %, S2=32.28 mg HC/g rock, and S1=0.74 mg HC/g rock. In conclusion, the Bonnet Plume Formation is gas-prone and possibly oil-prone. Further work is planned to determine the quantity, thickness and geographic extent of oil-prone coal seams and carbonaceous mudstones throughout the basin.

Acknowledgements

Discussions with Darrel Long and Art Sweet regarding the Bonnet Plume Basin, and Kirk Osadetz regarding Rock-Eval and organic geochemistry, are greatly appreciated. Katey Roberts performed admirably as field assistant.

Selected References

Behar, F., V. Beaumont, and H.L. De B Penteado, 2001, Rock-Eval 6 technology: performances and developments:  Oil & Gas Science and Technology, vol. 56, p. 111-134.

Cameron, A.R., and A.P. Beaton, 2000, Coal resources of Northern Canada with emphasis on Whitehorse Trough, Bonnet Plume Basin and Brackett Basin: International Journal of Coal Geology, 43, p. 187-210.

Camsell, C., 1906, Report on the Peel River and tributaries, Yukon and Mackenzie: Geological Survey of Canada, Report No. 951, p. 10-47.

de Sainville, E., 1898, Voyage a l’embouchure de la River Mackenzie: Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie (Paris), 19, p. 291-307, in W. Barr (translator), Journey to mouth of the Mackenzie River (1889-1894). The Journal of Polar Studies, 1984, 1, p. 541-550.

Duncan, D.C., 1976, Geologic setting of oil-shale deposits and world prospects. In: Oil Shale, T.F. Yen and G.V. Chilingar (eds.), Elsevier, New York, p. 13-26.

 Duncan, R A., 1976, Geochronology of DSDP basalts from the Ninety-East Ridge; evidence for the northward passage of the Indian Plate over the Kerguelen Hotspot: Eos Transactions American Geophysical Union, v. 57/12, p. 932-933.

Espitalie, J., G. Deroo and F. Marquis, 1985, Rock-Eval pyrolysis and its applications. Preprint, Institut Francais du Petrole, Geologie No. 27299, 72 p. English translation of La pyrolysis Rock-Eval et ses applications, Premiere, Deuxieme et Troisieme Parties, in Revue de l’Institut Francais du Petrole, 40, p. 563-579 and p. 755-784; 41, p. 73-89.

Fowler, M., L. Snowdon, and V. Stasiuk, 2005, Applying petroleum geochemistry to hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Short Course Notes, June 18-19, 2005, Calgary, Alberta, 224 p.

Hannigan, P.K., 2000, Petroleum resource assessment of Bonnet Plume Basin, Yukon Territory, Canada: Oil and Gas Branch, Department of Economic Development, Government of Yukon, 59 p.

Hendrix, M.S., S.C. Brassell, A.R. Carroll, and S.A. Graham, 1995, Sedimentology, organic geochemistry, and petroleum potential of Jurassic coal measures: Tarim, Junggar, and Turpan Basins, Northwest China: AAPG Bulletin, v. 79, p. 929-959.

Hunt, J.M., 1996, Petroleum geochemistry and geology, (second edition): W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, 606 p.

Lafargue, E., F. Marquis, and D. Pillot, 1998,  Rock-Eval 6 applications in hydrocarbon exploration, production, and soil contamination studies: Revue de L’institut Français du Pétrole, v. 53, p. 421-437.

Link, C.M. and R.M. Bustin, 1989, Organic maturation and thermal history of Phanerozoic strata in northern Yukon and northwest District of Mackenzie: Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, 37, p. 266-292.

Long, D.G.F., 1986, Coal in Yukon, in Mineral deposits of the northern Cordillera, J.D. Morin (ed.), Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 37, p. 311-318.

Long, D.G.F., 1978, Lignite deposits in the Bonnet Plume Formation, Yukon Territory. In: Current Research, Part A, Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 78-1A, p. 399-401.

Lowey, G.W. and D.G.F. Long, 2006, Summary of Rock-Eval data for the Whitehorse Trough, Yukon: Implications concerning the hydrocarbon potential of a frontier basin. In: Yukon Exploration and Geology 2005, D.S. Emond, G.H. Bradshaw, L.L. Lewis and L.H. Weston (eds.), Yukon Geological Survey, p. 207-230.

Nichols, D.J. and A.R. Sweet, 1993, Biostratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous non-marine palynofloras in a north-south transect of the Western Interior Basin, in Evolution of the Western Interior Basin, W.G.E. Caldwell and E.G. Kauffman (eds.): Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p. 539-584.

Peters, K.E. and M.R. Cassa, 1994, Applied source rock geochemistry. In: The petroleum system- from source to trap, L.B. Magoon and W.G. Dows (eds.), AAPG Memoir 60, p. 93-117.

Peters, K.E., 1986, Guidelines for evaluating petroleum source rock using programmed pyrolysis: AAPG Bulletin, v. 70, p. 318-329.

Rouse, G.E. and S.K. Srivastava, 1972, Palynological zonation of Cretaceous and Early Tertiary rocks of the Bonnet Plume Formation, northeastern Yukon, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 9, p. 1163-1179.

Stack, E., M.T. Mackowsky, M. Teichmuller, G.H. Taylor, D. Chandra, and R. Teichmuller, 1982,  Textbook of coal petrology, 3rd Edition: Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin, 535 p.

Tissot, B.P. and D.H. Welte, 1984, Petroleum formation and occurrence: Springer-Verlag, New York, 436 p.

Traverse, A., 1988, Paleopalynology. Unwin Hyman, Boston, 512 p.

Tyson, R.V., 1995. Sedimentary organic matter. Chapman and Hall, New York, 615 p.

Yen, T.F. and G.V. Chilingar, 1976, Introduction to oil shales, in Oil Shale, T.F. Yen and G.V. Chilingar (eds.),: Elsevier, New York, p. 2-12.

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